Which type of concrete has the highest embodied energy?

Steel-reinforced concrete possesses the highest embodied energy due to the significant energy consumed during the production of both concrete and steel. The process of making concrete involves the extraction, transportation, and processing of raw materials, which include cement, aggregates, and water. Cement, in particular, is one of the most energy-intensive materials to produce, requiring large amounts of heat for calcination.

When steel reinforcement is incorporated into concrete, not only does the embodied energy of the concrete itself contribute to the total, but the energy used to produce the steel adds an additional layer. The steel manufacturing process is energy-intensive, involving mining, refining, and melting processes that all contribute to higher embodied energy figures. Consequently, steel-reinforced concrete entails both the energy costs associated with concrete and those linked to steel production, making it the type with the highest embodied energy among the options listed.